16 Haziran 2010 Çarşamba
8 Haziran 2010 Salı
INTRODUCTION
LEARNING STYLES AND STRATEGIES
Learning styles are the preferred ways by which people learn. Learning styles refer to an individual's preferred manner of processing material, or characteristic style of acquiring and using information when learning. Common learning styles include visual, auditory, and tactile.
It is commonly believed that most people favor some particular method of interacting with, taking in, and processing stimuli or information. Based on this concept, the idea of individualized "learning styles" originated in the 1970s, and has gained popularity in recent years.It has been proposed that teachers should assess the learning styles of their students and adapt their classroom methods to best fit each student's learning style.
Visual Learners - Visual learners are those who generally think in terms of pictures. They often prefer to see things written down in a handout, text or on the overhead. They find maps, graphs, charts, and other visual learning tools to be extremely effective. They remember things best by seeing something written.
Visual learners often:
remember visual details
prefer to see what they are learning
like to have paper and pens handy
doodle while listening
have trouble following lectures
like to write down instructions or telephone numbers
Auditory Learners - Auditory learners are those who generally learn best by listening. They typically like to learn through lectures, discussions, and reading aloud. They remember best through hearing or saying items aloud.
Auditory learners often:
enjoy oral discussion
remember by talking out loud
need to have things explained orally
have trouble with written instructions
talk to themselves while learning something new
repeat a telephone number in order to remember it
Kinesthetic Learners- Kinesthetic, also called tactile, learners are those who learn best through touching, feeling, and experiencing that which they are trying to learn. They remember best by writing or physically manipulating the information. They learn skills by imitation and practice.
Kinesthetic-tactile learners often:
prefer activities
want to actually do whatever is being talked about or learned
like to move around while listening or talking
often "talk" with their hands
like to touch things in order to learn about them
remember things by recalling who did what rather than who said what
Quotations
Who Says What about Learning ??
- "The mind is not a vessel to be filled, but a fire to be ignited." Plutarch
- "To learn anything fast and effectively, you have to see it, hear it and feel it." Tony Stockwell
- "Your brain is like a sleeping giant." Tony Buzan
- “We must emphasize the need for teachers to be aware that all children, regardless of their race or ethnicity, have different learning styles.’’ (Jacqueline Jordan Irvine, Emory University)
- "Teachers should have a variety of teaching styles. If a child does not master a skill the first time, try again, but not necessarily the same way you taught it the first time.” (Dr. Jacqueline Jordan Irvine, Emory University)
-"Sometimes the last thing learners need is for their preferred learning style to be affirmed. Agreeing to let people learn only in a way that feels comfortable and familiar can restrict seriously their chance for development.’’ Steven Brookfield
- “Learning is a matter of attitude not aptitude” Dr. Georgi Lovonov
- "The mind is not a vessel to be filled, but a fire to be ignited." Plutarch
- "To learn anything fast and effectively, you have to see it, hear it and feel it." Tony Stockwell
- "Your brain is like a sleeping giant." Tony Buzan
- “We must emphasize the need for teachers to be aware that all children, regardless of their race or ethnicity, have different learning styles.’’ (Jacqueline Jordan Irvine, Emory University)
- "Teachers should have a variety of teaching styles. If a child does not master a skill the first time, try again, but not necessarily the same way you taught it the first time.” (Dr. Jacqueline Jordan Irvine, Emory University)
-"Sometimes the last thing learners need is for their preferred learning style to be affirmed. Agreeing to let people learn only in a way that feels comfortable and familiar can restrict seriously their chance for development.’’ Steven Brookfield
- “Learning is a matter of attitude not aptitude” Dr. Georgi Lovonov
Article 2
LEARNING STYLES AND STRATEGIES
Richard M. Felder Hoechst Celanese Professor of Chemical Engineering North Carolina State University
Barbara A. Soloman Coordinator of Advising, First Year College North Carolina State University
ACTIVE AND REFLECTIVE LEARNERS
Active learners tend to retain and understand information best by doing something active with it--discussing or applying it or explaining it to others. Reflective learners prefer to think about it quietly first. "Let's try it out and see how it works" is an active learner's phrase; "Let's think it through first" is the reflective learner's response.
Active learners tend to like group work more than reflective learners, who prefer working alone.
Sitting through lectures without getting to do anything physical but take notes is hard for both learning types, but particularly hard for active learners.
Everybody is active sometimes and reflective sometimes. Your preference for one category or the other may be strong, moderate, or mild. A balance of the two is desirable. If you always act before reflecting you can jump into things prematurely and get into trouble, while if you spend too much time reflecting you may never get anything done.
How can active learners help themselves?
If you are an active learner in a class that allows little or no class time for discussion or problem-solving activities, you should try to compensate for these lacks when you study. Study in a group in which the members take turns explaining different topics to each other. Work with others to guess what you will be asked on the next test and figure out how you will answer. You will always retain information better if you find ways to do something with it.
How can reflective learners help themselves?
If you are a reflective learner in a class that allows little or no class time for thinking about new information, you should try to compensate for this lack when you study. Don't simply read or memorize the material; stop periodically to review what you have read and to think of possible questions or applications. You might find it helpful to write short summaries of readings or class notes in your own words. Doing so may take extra time but will enable you to retain the material more effectively.
SENSING AND INTUITIVE LEARNERS
Sensing learners tend to like learning facts, intuitive learners often prefer discovering possibilities and relationships.
Sensors often like solving problems by well-established methods and dislike complications and surprises; intuitors like innovation and dislike repetition. Sensors are more likely than intuitors to resent being tested on material that has not been explicitly covered in class.
Sensors tend to be patient with details and good at memorizing facts and doing hands-on (laboratory) work; intuitors may be better at grasping new concepts and are often more comfortable than sensors with abstractions and mathematical formulations.
Sensors tend to be more practical and careful than intuitors; intuitors tend to work faster and to be more innovative than sensors.
Sensors don't like courses that have no apparent connection to the real world; intuitors don't like "plug-and-chug" courses that involve a lot of memorization and routine calculations.
Everybody is sensing sometimes and intuitive sometimes. Your preference for one or the other may be strong, moderate, or mild. To be effective as a learner and problem solver, you need to be able to function both ways. If you overemphasize intuition, you may miss important details or make careless mistakes in calculations or hands-on work; if you overemphasize sensing, you may rely too much on memorization and familiar methods and not concentrate enough on understanding and innovative thinking.
How can sensing learners help themselves?
Sensors remember and understand information best if they can see how it connects to the real world. If you are in a class where most of the material is abstract and theoretical, you may have difficulty. Ask your instructor for specific examples of concepts and procedures, and find out how the concepts apply in practice. If the teacher does not provide enough specifics, try to find some in your course text or other references or by brainstorming with friends or classmates.
How can intuitive learners help themselves?
Many college lecture classes are aimed at intuitors. However, if you are an intuitor and you happen to be in a class that deals primarily with memorization and rote substitution in formulas, you may have trouble with boredom. Ask your instructor for interpretations or theories that link the facts, or try to find the connections yourself. You may also be prone to careless mistakes on test because you are impatient with details and don't like repetition (as in checking your completed solutions). Take time to read the entire question before you start answering and be sure to check your results.
VISUAL AND VERBAL LEARNERS
Visual learners remember best what they see--pictures, diagrams, flow charts, time lines, films, and demonstrations. Verbal learners get more out of words--written and spoken explanations. Everyone learns more when information is presented both visually and verbally.
In most college classes very little visual information is presented: students mainly listen to lectures and read material written on chalkboards and in textbooks and handouts. Unfortunately, most people are visual learners, which means that most students do not get nearly as much as they would if more visual presentation were used in class. Good learners are capable of processing information presented either visually or verbally.
How can visual learners help themselves?
If you are a visual learner, try to find diagrams, sketches, schematics, photographs, flow charts, or any other visual representation of course material that is predominantly verbal. Ask your instructor, consult reference books, and see if any videotapes or CD-ROM displays of the course material are available. Prepare a concept map by listing key points, enclosing them in boxes or circles, and drawing lines with arrows between concepts to show connections. Color-code your notes with a highlighter so that everything relating to one topic is the same color.
How can verbal learners help themselves?
Write summaries or outlines of course material in your own words. Working in groups can be particularly effective: you gain understanding of material by hearing classmates' explanations and you learn even more when you do the explaining.
SEQUENTIAL AND GLOBAL LEARNERS
Sequential learners tend to gain understanding in linear steps, with each step following logically from the previous one. Global learners tend to learn in large jumps, absorbing material almost randomly without seeing connections, and then suddenly "getting it."
Sequential learners tend to follow logical stepwise paths in finding solutions; global learners may be able to solve complex problems quickly or put things together in novel ways once they have grasped the big picture, but they may have difficulty explaining how they did it.
Many people who read this description may conclude incorrectly that they are global, since everyone has experienced bewilderment followed by a sudden flash of understanding. What makes you global or not is what happens before the light bulb goes on. Sequential learners may not fully understand the material but they can nevertheless do something with it (like solve the homework problems or pass the test) since the pieces they have absorbed are logically connected. Strongly global learners who lack good sequential thinking abilities, on the other hand, may have serious difficulties until they have the big picture. Even after they have it, they may be fuzzy about the details of the subject, while sequential learners may know a lot about specific aspects of a subject but may have trouble relating them to different aspects of the same subject or to different subjects.
How can sequential learners help themselves?
Most college courses are taught in a sequential manner. However, if you are a sequential learner and you have an instructor who jumps around from topic to topic or skips steps, you may have difficulty following and remembering. Ask the instructor to fill in the skipped steps, or fill them in yourself by consulting references. When you are studying, take the time to outline the lecture material for yourself in logical order. In the long run doing so will save you time. You might also try to strengthen your global thinking skills by relating each new topic you study to things you already know. The more you can do so, the deeper your understanding of the topic is likely to be.
How can global learners help themselves?
If you are a global learner, it can be helpful for you to realize that you need the big picture of a subject before you can master details. If your instructor plunges directly into new topics without bothering to explain how they relate to what you already know, it can cause problems for you. Fortunately, there are steps you can take that may help you get the big picture more rapidly. Before you begin to study the first section of a chapter in a text, skim through the entire chapter to get an overview. Doing so may be time-consuming initially but it may save you from going over and over individual parts later. Instead of spending a short time on every subject every night, you might find it more productive to immerse yourself in individual subjects for large blocks. Try to relate the subject to things you already know, either by asking the instructor to help you see connections or by consulting references. Above all, don't lose faith in yourself; you will eventually understand the new material, and once you do your understanding of how it connects to other topics and disciplines may enable you to apply it in ways that most sequential thinkers would never dream of.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1) Do you accept yourself as an active or reflective learner why or why not? how can you help yourself in your learning process as an active or reflective learner?
2) After reading overall the article, what kind of class environment would you set up for your students who reflect very different kinds of learners as in the article?
Richard M. Felder Hoechst Celanese Professor of Chemical Engineering North Carolina State University
Barbara A. Soloman Coordinator of Advising, First Year College North Carolina State University
ACTIVE AND REFLECTIVE LEARNERS
Active learners tend to retain and understand information best by doing something active with it--discussing or applying it or explaining it to others. Reflective learners prefer to think about it quietly first. "Let's try it out and see how it works" is an active learner's phrase; "Let's think it through first" is the reflective learner's response.
Active learners tend to like group work more than reflective learners, who prefer working alone.
Sitting through lectures without getting to do anything physical but take notes is hard for both learning types, but particularly hard for active learners.
Everybody is active sometimes and reflective sometimes. Your preference for one category or the other may be strong, moderate, or mild. A balance of the two is desirable. If you always act before reflecting you can jump into things prematurely and get into trouble, while if you spend too much time reflecting you may never get anything done.
How can active learners help themselves?
If you are an active learner in a class that allows little or no class time for discussion or problem-solving activities, you should try to compensate for these lacks when you study. Study in a group in which the members take turns explaining different topics to each other. Work with others to guess what you will be asked on the next test and figure out how you will answer. You will always retain information better if you find ways to do something with it.
How can reflective learners help themselves?
If you are a reflective learner in a class that allows little or no class time for thinking about new information, you should try to compensate for this lack when you study. Don't simply read or memorize the material; stop periodically to review what you have read and to think of possible questions or applications. You might find it helpful to write short summaries of readings or class notes in your own words. Doing so may take extra time but will enable you to retain the material more effectively.
SENSING AND INTUITIVE LEARNERS
Sensing learners tend to like learning facts, intuitive learners often prefer discovering possibilities and relationships.
Sensors often like solving problems by well-established methods and dislike complications and surprises; intuitors like innovation and dislike repetition. Sensors are more likely than intuitors to resent being tested on material that has not been explicitly covered in class.
Sensors tend to be patient with details and good at memorizing facts and doing hands-on (laboratory) work; intuitors may be better at grasping new concepts and are often more comfortable than sensors with abstractions and mathematical formulations.
Sensors tend to be more practical and careful than intuitors; intuitors tend to work faster and to be more innovative than sensors.
Sensors don't like courses that have no apparent connection to the real world; intuitors don't like "plug-and-chug" courses that involve a lot of memorization and routine calculations.
Everybody is sensing sometimes and intuitive sometimes. Your preference for one or the other may be strong, moderate, or mild. To be effective as a learner and problem solver, you need to be able to function both ways. If you overemphasize intuition, you may miss important details or make careless mistakes in calculations or hands-on work; if you overemphasize sensing, you may rely too much on memorization and familiar methods and not concentrate enough on understanding and innovative thinking.
How can sensing learners help themselves?
Sensors remember and understand information best if they can see how it connects to the real world. If you are in a class where most of the material is abstract and theoretical, you may have difficulty. Ask your instructor for specific examples of concepts and procedures, and find out how the concepts apply in practice. If the teacher does not provide enough specifics, try to find some in your course text or other references or by brainstorming with friends or classmates.
How can intuitive learners help themselves?
Many college lecture classes are aimed at intuitors. However, if you are an intuitor and you happen to be in a class that deals primarily with memorization and rote substitution in formulas, you may have trouble with boredom. Ask your instructor for interpretations or theories that link the facts, or try to find the connections yourself. You may also be prone to careless mistakes on test because you are impatient with details and don't like repetition (as in checking your completed solutions). Take time to read the entire question before you start answering and be sure to check your results.
VISUAL AND VERBAL LEARNERS
Visual learners remember best what they see--pictures, diagrams, flow charts, time lines, films, and demonstrations. Verbal learners get more out of words--written and spoken explanations. Everyone learns more when information is presented both visually and verbally.
In most college classes very little visual information is presented: students mainly listen to lectures and read material written on chalkboards and in textbooks and handouts. Unfortunately, most people are visual learners, which means that most students do not get nearly as much as they would if more visual presentation were used in class. Good learners are capable of processing information presented either visually or verbally.
How can visual learners help themselves?
If you are a visual learner, try to find diagrams, sketches, schematics, photographs, flow charts, or any other visual representation of course material that is predominantly verbal. Ask your instructor, consult reference books, and see if any videotapes or CD-ROM displays of the course material are available. Prepare a concept map by listing key points, enclosing them in boxes or circles, and drawing lines with arrows between concepts to show connections. Color-code your notes with a highlighter so that everything relating to one topic is the same color.
How can verbal learners help themselves?
Write summaries or outlines of course material in your own words. Working in groups can be particularly effective: you gain understanding of material by hearing classmates' explanations and you learn even more when you do the explaining.
SEQUENTIAL AND GLOBAL LEARNERS
Sequential learners tend to gain understanding in linear steps, with each step following logically from the previous one. Global learners tend to learn in large jumps, absorbing material almost randomly without seeing connections, and then suddenly "getting it."
Sequential learners tend to follow logical stepwise paths in finding solutions; global learners may be able to solve complex problems quickly or put things together in novel ways once they have grasped the big picture, but they may have difficulty explaining how they did it.
Many people who read this description may conclude incorrectly that they are global, since everyone has experienced bewilderment followed by a sudden flash of understanding. What makes you global or not is what happens before the light bulb goes on. Sequential learners may not fully understand the material but they can nevertheless do something with it (like solve the homework problems or pass the test) since the pieces they have absorbed are logically connected. Strongly global learners who lack good sequential thinking abilities, on the other hand, may have serious difficulties until they have the big picture. Even after they have it, they may be fuzzy about the details of the subject, while sequential learners may know a lot about specific aspects of a subject but may have trouble relating them to different aspects of the same subject or to different subjects.
How can sequential learners help themselves?
Most college courses are taught in a sequential manner. However, if you are a sequential learner and you have an instructor who jumps around from topic to topic or skips steps, you may have difficulty following and remembering. Ask the instructor to fill in the skipped steps, or fill them in yourself by consulting references. When you are studying, take the time to outline the lecture material for yourself in logical order. In the long run doing so will save you time. You might also try to strengthen your global thinking skills by relating each new topic you study to things you already know. The more you can do so, the deeper your understanding of the topic is likely to be.
How can global learners help themselves?
If you are a global learner, it can be helpful for you to realize that you need the big picture of a subject before you can master details. If your instructor plunges directly into new topics without bothering to explain how they relate to what you already know, it can cause problems for you. Fortunately, there are steps you can take that may help you get the big picture more rapidly. Before you begin to study the first section of a chapter in a text, skim through the entire chapter to get an overview. Doing so may be time-consuming initially but it may save you from going over and over individual parts later. Instead of spending a short time on every subject every night, you might find it more productive to immerse yourself in individual subjects for large blocks. Try to relate the subject to things you already know, either by asking the instructor to help you see connections or by consulting references. Above all, don't lose faith in yourself; you will eventually understand the new material, and once you do your understanding of how it connects to other topics and disciplines may enable you to apply it in ways that most sequential thinkers would never dream of.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1) Do you accept yourself as an active or reflective learner why or why not? how can you help yourself in your learning process as an active or reflective learner?
2) After reading overall the article, what kind of class environment would you set up for your students who reflect very different kinds of learners as in the article?
Article 1
Learning Styles & Strategies/Oxford, GALA 2003
LANGUAGE LEARNING STYLES AND STRATEGIES:
AN OVERVIEW
Rebecca L. Oxford, Ph.D.
ABSTRACT: In “Language Learning Styles and Strategies,” the author synthesizes research
from various parts of the world on two key variables affecting language learning: styles, i.e.,
the general approaches to learning a language; and strategies, the specific behaviors or
thoughts learners use to enhance their language learning. These factors influence the student’s
ability to learn in a particular instructional framework.
Introduction
Language learning styles and strategies are among the main factors that help determine
how –and how well –our students learn a second or foreign language. A second language is a
language studied in a setting where that language is the main vehicle of everyday
communication and where abundant input exists in that language. A foreign language is a
language studied in an environment where it is not the primary vehicle for daily interaction and
where input in that language is restricted. Following the tradition in our field, the term “L2” is
used in this chapter to refer to either a second or a foreign language.
The readers of this book will be primarily in the field of English as a second or foreign
language (ESL or EFL), and most of the studies in this chapter were conducted in ESL or EFL
settings. However, some of the studies cited here focused on native English speakers learning
French, German, Japanese, and other languages foreign to them. Information about language
learning styles and strategies is valid regardless of what the learner’s first language is.
Learning styles are the general approaches –for example, global or analytic, auditory or
visual –that students use in acquiring a new language or in learning any other subject. These
styles are “the overall patterns that give general direction to learning behavior” (Cornett, 1983,
p. 9). Of greatest relevance to this methodology book is this statement: “Learning style is the
biologically and developmentally imposed set of characteristics that make the same teaching
method wonderful for some and terrible for others” (Dunn & Griggs, 1988, p. 3).This chapter
explores the following aspects of learning style: sensory preferences, personality types, desired
degree of generality, and biological differences.
Learning strategies are defined as “specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques --
such as seeking out conversation partners, or giving oneself encouragement to tackle a difficult
language task -- used by students to enhance their own learning” (Scarcella & Oxford, 1992, p.
63). When the learner consciously chooses strategies that fit his or her learning style and the L2
task at hand, these strategies become a useful toolkit for active, conscious, and purposeful selfregulation of learning. Learning strategies can be classified into six groups: cognitive,
metacognitive, memory-related, compensatory, affective, and social. Each of these is discussed
later in this chapter.
Because this chapter contributes to an instructional methodology book, it is important
to emphasize that learning styles and strategies of individual students can work together with –
or conflict with –a given instructional methodology. If there is harmony between (a) the
student (in terms of style and strategy preferences) and (b) the combination of instructional
methodology and materials, then the student is likely to perform well, feel confident, and
experience low anxiety. If clashes occur between (a) and (b), the student often performs poorly,
feels unconfident, and experiences significant anxiety. Sometimes such clashes lead to serious
breakdowns in teacher-student interaction. These conflicts may also lead to the dispirited
student’s outright rejection of the teaching methodology, the teacher, and the subject matter.
Now we move to the detailed discussion of learning styles.
Learning Styles
Ehrman and Oxford (1990) cited 9 major style dimensions relevant to L2 learning,
although many more style aspects might also prove to be influential. This chapter discusses
four dimensions of learning style that are likely to be among those most strongly associated
with L2 learning: sensory preferences, personality types, desired degree of generality, and
biological differences.
Learning styles are not dichotomous (black or white, present or absent). Learning styles
generally operate on a continuum or on multiple, intersecting continua. For example, a person
might be more extraverted than introverted, or more closure-oriented than open, or equally
visual and auditory but with lesser kinesthetic and tactile involvement. Few if any people could
be classified as having all or nothing in any of these categories (Ehrman, 1996).
Sensory Preferences
Sensory preferences can be broken down into four main areas: visual, auditory,
kinesthetic (movement-oriented), and tactile (touch-oriented). Sensory preferences refer to the
physical, perceptual learning channels with which the student is the most comfortable. Visual
students like to read and obtain a great deal from visual stimulation. For them, lectures,
conversations, and oral directions without any visual backup can be very confusing. In contrast,
auditory students are comfortable without visual input and therefore enjoy and profit from
unembellished lectures, conversations, and oral directions. They are excited by classroom
interactions in role-plays and similar activities. They sometimes, however, have difficulty with
written work. Kinesthetic and tactile students like lots of movement and enjoy working with
tangible objects, collages, and flashcards. Sitting at a desk for very long is not for them; they
prefer to have frequent breaks and move around the room.
Reid (1987) demonstrated that ESL students varied significantly in their sensory
preferences, with people from certain cultures differentially favoring the three different
modalities for learning. Students from Asian cultures, for instance, were often highly visual,
with Koreans being the most visual. Many studies, including Reid’s, found that Hispanic
learners were frequently auditory. Reid discovered that Japanese are very nonauditory. ESL
students from a variety of cultures were tactile and kinesthetic in their sensory preferences.
See also Reid (1995) and Oxford and Anderson (1995).
Personality Types
Another style aspect that is important for L2 education is that of personality type, which
consists of four strands: extraverted vs. introverted; intuitive-random vs. sensing-sequential;
thinking vs. feeling; and closure-oriented/judging vs. open/perceiving. Personality type (often
called psychological type) is a construct based on the work of psychologist Carl Jung. Ehrman
and Oxford (1989, 1990) found a number of significant relationships between personality type
and L2 proficiency in native-English-speaking learners of foreign languages. For more on
personality type in language learning, see Ehrman (1996) and Oxford (1996b).
Extraverted vs. Introverted. By definition, extraverts gain their greatest energy from the
external world. They want interaction with people and have many friendships, some deep and
some not. In contrast, introverts derive their energy from the internal world, seeking solitude
and tending to have just a few friendships, which are often very deep. Extraverts and introverts
can learn to work together with the help of the teacher. Enforcing time limits in the L2
classroom can keep extraverts’ enthusiasm to a manageable level. Rotating the person in
charge of leading L2 discussions gives introverts the opportunity to participate equally with
extraverts.
Intuitive-Random vs. Sensing-Sequential. Intuitive-random students think in abstract,
futuristic, large-scale, and nonsequential ways. They like to create theories and new
possibilities, often have sudden insights, and prefer to guide their own learning. In contrast,
sensing-sequential learners are grounded in the here and now. They like facts rather than
theories, want guidance and specific instruction from the teacher, and look for consistency. The
key to teaching both intuitive-random and sensing-sequential learners is to offer variety and
choice: sometimes a highly organized structure for sensing-sequential learners and at other
times multiple options and enrichment activities for intuitive-random students.
Thinking vs. Feeling. Thinking learners are oriented toward the stark truth, even if it
hurts some people’s feelings. They want to be viewed as competent and do not tend to offer
praise easily –even though they might secretly desire to be praised themselves. Sometimes
they seem detached. In comparison, feeling learners value other people in very personal ways.
They show empathy and compassion through words, not just behaviors, and say whatever is
needed to smooth over difficult situations. Though they often wear their hearts on their sleeves,
they want to be respected for personal contributions and hard work. L2 teachers can help
thinking learners show greater overt compassion to their feeling classmates and can suggest
that feeling learners might tone down their emotional expression while working with thinking
learners.
Closure-oriented/Judging vs. Open/Perceiving. Closure-oriented students want to reach judgments or completion quickly and want clarity as soon as possible. These students are
serious, hardworking learners who like to be given written information and enjoy specific tasks
with deadlines. Sometimes their desire for closure hampers the development of fluency
(Ehrman & Oxford, 1989). In contrast, open learners want to stay available for continuously
new perceptions and are therefore sometimes called “perceiving.” They take L2 learning less
seriously, treating it like a game to be enjoyed rather than a set of tasks to be completed. Open
learners dislike deadlines; they want to have a good time and seem to soak up L2 information
by osmosis rather than hard effort. Open learners sometimes do better than closure-oriented
learners in developing fluency (Ehrman & Oxford, 1989), but they are at a disadvantage in a
traditional classroom setting. Closure-oriented and open learners provide a good balance for
each other in the L2 classroom. The former are the task-driven learners, and the latter know
how to have fun. Skilled L2 teachers sometimes consciously create cooperative groups that
include both types of learners, since these learners can benefit from collaboration with each
other.
Desired Degree of Generality
This strand contrasts the learner who focuses on the main idea or big picture with the
learner who concentrates on details. Global or holistic students like socially interactive,
communicative events in which they can emphasize the main idea and avoid analysis of
grammatical minutiae. They are comfortable even when not having all the information, and
they feel free to guess from the context. Analytic students tend to concentrate on grammatical
details and often avoid more free-flowing communicative activities. Because of their concern
for precision, analytic learners typically do not take the risks necessary for guessing from the
context unless they are fairly sure of the accuracy of their guesses. The global student and the
analytic student have much to learn from each other. A balance between generality and
specificity is very useful for L2 learning.
Biological Differences
Differences in L2 learning style can also be related to biological factors, such as
biorhythms, sustenance, and location. Biorhythms reveal the times of day when students feel
good and perform their best. Some L2 learners are morning people, while others do not want to
start learning until the afternoon, and still others are creatures of the evening, happily “pulling
an all-nighter” when necessary. Sustenance refers to the need for food or drink while learning.
Quite a number of L2 learners do not feel comfortable learning without a candy bar, a cup of
coffee, or a soda in hand, but others are distracted from study by food and drink. Location
involves the nature of the environment: temperature, lighting, sound, and even the firmness of
the chairs. L2 students differ widely with regard to these environmental factors. The biological
aspects of L2 learning style are often forgotten, but vigilant teachers can often make
accommodations and compromises when needed.
Beyond the Stylistic Comfort Zone
L2 learners clearly need to make the most of their style preferences. However,
occasionally they must also extend themselves beyond their style preferences. By providing a
wide range of classroom activities that cater to different learning styles, teachers can help L2
students develop beyond the comfort zone dictated by their natural style preferences. The key
is systematically offering a great variety of activities within a learner-centered, communicative
approach.
Assessing L2 Learning Style
By far the most common type of assessment tool for L2 learning styles is the written
survey. In surveys, students answer questions that reveal their particular style preferences.
Style surveys vary in reliability and validity, but in the last few decades they have provided
data from which teachers and students have begun to understand L2 styles. See Reid (1995) for
examples of such surveys.
We have touched upon a number of important dimensions of L2 learning style. Now we
are ready to turn to learning strategies, which are related to learning styles but are far more
specific.
Learning Strategies
As seen earlier, L2 learning strategies are specific behaviors or thought processes that
students use to enhance their own L2 learning. The word strategy comes from the ancient
Greek word strategia, which means steps or actions taken for the purpose of winning a war.
The warlike meaning of strategia has fortunately fallen away, but the control and goaldirectedness remain in the modern version of the word (Oxford, 1990).
A given strategy is neither good nor bad; it is essentially neutral until the context of its
use is thoroughly considered. What makes a strategy positive and helpful for a given learner?
A strategy is useful if the following conditions are present: (a) the strategy relates well to the
L2 task at hand, (b) the strategy fits the particular student’s learning style preferences to one
degree or another, and (c) the student employs the strategy effectively and links it with other
relevant strategies. Strategies that fulfill these conditions “make learning easier, faster, more
enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations” (Oxford,
1990, p. 8). Learning strategies can also enable students to become more independent,
autonomous, lifelong learners (Allwright, 1990; Little, 1991).
Yet students are not always aware of the power of consciously using L2 learning
strategies for making learning quicker and more effective (Nyikos & Oxford, 1993). Skilled
teachers help their students develop an awareness of learning strategies and enable them to use
a wider range of appropriate strategies.
Conscious Movement Toward Goals
Learning strategies are intentionally used and consciously controlled by the learner
(Pressley with McCormick, 1995). In our field, virtually all definitions of strategies imply
conscious movement toward a language goal (Bialystok, 1990; Oxford, 1990, 1996a). Let us
consider Divna, whose goal is to conduct research in chemistry with the help of articles written
in the L2. She is a busy professional without a lot of extra time for reading journals, but she
needs the information contained in them. To meet the need, she plans a manageable task:
finding and reading one L2 article per week on chemistry until she develops a rapid reading
rate and is able to identify and understand published research findings. Other strategies to help
Divna accomplish this task might include scheduling time each week to search for an article in
the library or on the Internet, as well as preparing herself by looking at articles on related
topics in her own language. In addition, she could use strategies such as skimming for the main
points, reading carefully for supporting details, keeping a notebook for L2 scientific
vocabulary, using the dictionary to look up difficult words, guessing the meaning of words
from the context, and making a written outline or summary if needed. The well-orchestrated set of strategies used by Divna might be called a strategy chain, i.e., a set of interlocking, related,
and mutually supportive strategies.
Positive Outcomes from Strategy Use
In subject areas outside of L2 learning, the use of learning strategies is demonstrably
related to student achievement and proficiency (Pressley & Associates, 1990). Research has
repeatedly shown this relationship in content fields ranging from physics to reading and from
social studies to science. In light of this remarkable association between learning strategy use
and positive learning outcomes, it is not surprising that students who frequently employ
learning strategies enjoy a high level of self-efficacy, i.e., a perception of being effective as
learners (Zimmerman & Pons, 1986).
In the L2 arena, early studies of so-called “good language learners” (Naiman, Fröhlich,
Stern, & Todesco, 1975; Rubin, 1975) determined that such learners consistently used certain
types of learning strategies, such as guessing meaning from the context. Later studies found
that there was no single set of strategies always used by “good language learners,” however.
Those studies found that less able learners used strategies in a random, unconnected, and
uncontrolled manner (Abraham & Vann, 1987; Chamot et al., 1996), while more effective
learners showed careful orchestration of strategies, targeted in a relevant, systematic way at
specific L2 tasks. In an investigation by Nunan (1991), more effective learners differed from
less effective learners in their greater ability to reflect on and articulate their own language
learning processes. In a study of learners of English in Puerto Rico, more successful students
used strategies for active involvement more frequently than did less successful learners,
according to Green and Oxford (1995). The same researchers also commented that the number
and type of learning strategies differed according to whether the learner was in a foreign
language environment or a second language setting. In their review of the research literature,
Green and Oxford discovered that second language learners generally employed more
strategies (with a higher frequency) than did foreign language learners.
Six Main Categories of L2 Learning Strategies
Six major groups of L2 learning strategies have been identified by Oxford (1990).
Alternative taxonomies have been offered by O’Malley and Chamot (1990) and others.
Cognitive strategies enable the learner to manipulate the language material in direct
ways, e.g., through reasoning, analysis, note-taking, summarizing, synthesizing, outlining,
reorganizing information to develop stronger schemas (knowledge structures), practicing in
naturalistic settings, and practicing structures and sounds formally. Cognitive strategies were
significantly related to L2 proficiency in studies by Kato (1996), Ku (1995), Oxford and
Ehrman (1995), Oxford, Judd, and Giesen (1998), and Park (1994), among others. Of these
studies, three were specifically in EFL settings: Ku (Taiwan), Oxford, Judd, and Giesen
(Turkey), and Park (Korea). The other two studies involved the learning of Kanji by native
English speakers (Kato, 1996) and the learning of various foreign languages by native English
speakers (Oxford & Ehrman, 1995).
Metacognitive strategies (e.g., identifying one’s own learning style preferences and
needs, planning for an L2 task, gathering and organizing materials, arranging a study space and
a schedule, monitoring mistakes, and evaluating task success, and evaluating the success of any
type of learning strategy) are employed for managing the learning process overall. Among
native English speakers learning foreign languages, Purpura (1999) found that metacognitive
strategies had "a significant, positive, direct effect on cognitive strategy use, providing clear
evidence that metacognitive strategy use has an executive function over cognitive strategy use
in task completion" (p. 61). Studies of EFL learners in various countries (e.g., in South Africa,
Dreyer & Oxford, 1996; and in Turkey, Oxford, Judd, & Giesen, 1998) uncovered evidence
that metacognitive strategies are often strong predictors of L2 proficiency.
Memory-related strategies help learners link one L2 item or concept with another but
do not necessarily involve deep understanding. Various memory-related strategies enable
learners to learn and retrieve information in an orderly string (e.g., acronyms), while other
techniques create learning and retrieval via sounds (e.g., rhyming), images (e.g., a mental
picture of the word itself or the meaning of the word), a combination of sounds and images
(e.g., the keyword method), body movement (e.g., total physical response), mechanical means
(e.g., flashcards), or location (e.g., on a page or blackboard) (see Oxford, 1990 for details and
multiple examples). Memory-related strategies have been shown to relate to L2 proficiency in
a course devoted to memorizing large numbers of Kanji characters (Kato, 1996) and in L2
courses designed for native-English speaking learners of foreign languages (Oxford & Ehrman,
1995). However, memory-related strategies do not always positively relate to L2 proficiency.
In fact, the use of memory strategies in a test-taking situation had a significant negative
relationship to learners' test performance in grammar and vocabulary (Purpura, 1997). The
probable reason for this is that memory strategies are often used for memorizing vocabulary
and structures in initial stages of language learning, but that learners need such strategies much
less when their arsenal of vocabulary and structures has become larger.
Compensatory strategies (e.g., guessing from the context in listening and reading; using
synonyms and “talking around” the missing word to aid speaking and writing; and strictly for
speaking, using gestures or pause words) help the learner make up for missing knowledge.
Cohen (1998) asserted that compensatory strategies that are used for speaking and writing
(often known as a form of communication strategies) are intended only for language use and
must not be considered to be language learning strategies. However, Little (personal
communication, January, 1999) and Oxford (1990, 1999a) contend that compensation
strategies of any kind, even though they might be used for language use, nevertheless aid in
language learning as well. After all, each instance of L2 use is an opportunity for more L2
learning. Oxford and Ehrman (1995) demonstrated that compensatory strategies are
significantly related to L2 proficiency in their study of native-English-speaking learners of
foreign languages.
Affective strategies, such as identifying one’s mood and anxiety level, talking about
feelings, rewarding oneself for good performance, and using deep breathing or positive selftalk,
have been shown to be significantly related to L2 proficiency in research by Dreyer and
Oxford (1996) among South African EFL learners and by Oxford and Ehrman (1995) among
native English speakers learning foreign languages. However, in other studies, such as that of
Mullins (1992) with EFL learners in Thailand, affective strategies showed a negative link with
some measures of L2 proficiency. One reason might be that as some students progress toward
proficiency, they no longer need affective strategies as much as before. Perhaps because
learners’ use of cognitive, metacognitive, and social strategies is related to greater L2
proficiency and self-efficacy, over time there might be less need for affective strategies as
learners progress to higher proficiency.
Social strategies (e.g., asking questions to get verification, asking for clarification of a
confusing point, asking for help in doing a language task, talking with a native-speaking
conversation partner, and exploring cultural and social norms) help the learner work with
others and understand the target culture as well as the language. Social strategies were
significantly associated with L2 proficiency in studies by the South African EFL study by
Dreyer and Oxford (1996) and the investigation of native-English-speaking foreign language
learners by Oxford and Ehrman (1995).
Assessing Learners’ Use of Strategies
Many assessment tools exist for uncovering the strategies used by L2 learners. Selfreport
surveys, observations, interviews, learner journals, dialogue journals, think-aloud
techniques, and other measures have been used. Each one of these has advantages and
disadvantages, as analyzed by Oxford (1990) and Cohen and Scott (1996). The most widely
used survey, the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (an appendix in Oxford, 1990), has
been translated into more than 20 languages and used in dozens of published studies around the
world.
Various learning strategy instruments have disclosed research results beyond those that
have been mentioned above. These additional findings include the following: L2 learning
strategy use is significantly related to L2 learning motivation, gender, age, culture, brain
hemisphere dominance, career orientation, academic major, beliefs, and the nature of the L2
task. A number of these findings have been summarized in Oxford (1999a, 1999b).
Assessing Styles and Strategies in the L2 Classroom
L2 teachers could benefit by assessing the learning styles and the strategy use of their
students, because such assessment leads to greater understanding of styles and strategies.
Teachers also need to assess their styles and strategies, so that they will be aware of their
preferences and of possible biases. Useful means exist to make these assessments, as
mentioned earlier. Teachers can learn about assessment options by reading books or journals,
attending professional conferences, or taking relevant courses or workshops.
Attuning L2 Instruction and Strategy Instruction to Learners’ Style Needs
The more that teachers know about their students' style preferences, the more
effectively they can orient their L2 instruction, as well as the strategy teaching that can be
interwoven into language instruction, matched to those style preferences. Some learners might
need instruction presented more visually, while others might require more auditory, kinesthetic, or tactile types of instruction. Without adequate knowledge about their individual students’
style preferences, teachers cannot systematically provide the needed instructional variety.
Remembering that No Single L2 Instructional Methodology Fits All Students
Styles and strategies help determine a particular learner’s ability and willingness to
work within the framework of various instructional methodologies. It is foolhardy to think that
a single L2 methodology could possibly fit an entire class filled with students who have a
range of stylistic and strategic preferences. Instead of choosing a specific instructional
methodology, L2 teachers would do better to employ a broad instructional approach, notably
the best version of the communicative approach that contains a combined focus on form and
fluency. Such an approach allows for deliberate, creative variety to meet the needs of all
students in the class.
Preparing for and Conducting L2 Strategy Instruction
L2 teachers should consider various ways to prepare to conduct strategy instruction in
their classes. Helpful preparatory steps include taking teacher development courses, finding
relevant information in print or on the Internet, and making contacts with specialists.
Although we do not yet know all we wish to know about optimal strategy instruction,
there is growing evidence that L2 teachers can and should conduct strategy instruction in their
classrooms. For some teachers it might be better to start with small strategy interventions, such as helping L2 readers learn to analyze words and guess meanings from the context, rather than
with full-scale strategies-based instruction involving a vast array of learning strategies and the
four language skills, i.e., reading, writing, speaking and listening. (See Oxford, 1990, for a
table of L2 strategies based on the six categories cross-indexed by the four language skills.)
Other teachers might want to move rapidly into strategies-based instruction. Strategiesbased
instruction is not so much a separate “instructional method” as it is sound strategy
instruction interwoven with the general communicative language teaching approach noted
above. Chamot and O’Malley (1996) describe the CALLA model, a form of strategies-based
instruction for ESL learners that includes explicit strategy instruction, content area instruction,
and academic language development. Cohen (1998) presents a different but somewhat related
version of strategies-based instruction for native English speakers learning foreign languages.
In evaluating the success of any strategy instruction, teachers should look for individuals’
progress toward L2 proficiency and for signs of increased self-efficacy or motivation.
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BIOSTATEMENT: Rebecca Oxford is Professor and Director of the Second Language
Education Program at the University of Maryland, College Park. Her books include Language
Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know, 1990; Language Learning Strategies
Around the World: Cross-Cultural Perspectives, 1996; and Patterns of Cultural Identity, 1995.
She edited the Tapestry ESL Program, second edition, 1999.
Discussion Questions
1. How are learning styles and strategies related?
2. Why are learning styles and strategies important for L2 teachers to understand?
3.What is your general opinion about six major categories of L2 learning strategies?
from various parts of the world on two key variables affecting language learning: styles, i.e.,
the general approaches to learning a language; and strategies, the specific behaviors or
thoughts learners use to enhance their language learning. These factors influence the student’s
ability to learn in a particular instructional framework.
Introduction
Language learning styles and strategies are among the main factors that help determine
how –and how well –our students learn a second or foreign language. A second language is a
language studied in a setting where that language is the main vehicle of everyday
communication and where abundant input exists in that language. A foreign language is a
language studied in an environment where it is not the primary vehicle for daily interaction and
where input in that language is restricted. Following the tradition in our field, the term “L2” is
used in this chapter to refer to either a second or a foreign language.
The readers of this book will be primarily in the field of English as a second or foreign
language (ESL or EFL), and most of the studies in this chapter were conducted in ESL or EFL
settings. However, some of the studies cited here focused on native English speakers learning
French, German, Japanese, and other languages foreign to them. Information about language
learning styles and strategies is valid regardless of what the learner’s first language is.
Learning styles are the general approaches –for example, global or analytic, auditory or
visual –that students use in acquiring a new language or in learning any other subject. These
styles are “the overall patterns that give general direction to learning behavior” (Cornett, 1983,
p. 9). Of greatest relevance to this methodology book is this statement: “Learning style is the
biologically and developmentally imposed set of characteristics that make the same teaching
method wonderful for some and terrible for others” (Dunn & Griggs, 1988, p. 3).This chapter
explores the following aspects of learning style: sensory preferences, personality types, desired
degree of generality, and biological differences.
Learning strategies are defined as “specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques --
such as seeking out conversation partners, or giving oneself encouragement to tackle a difficult
language task -- used by students to enhance their own learning” (Scarcella & Oxford, 1992, p.
63). When the learner consciously chooses strategies that fit his or her learning style and the L2
task at hand, these strategies become a useful toolkit for active, conscious, and purposeful selfregulation of learning. Learning strategies can be classified into six groups: cognitive,
metacognitive, memory-related, compensatory, affective, and social. Each of these is discussed
later in this chapter.
Because this chapter contributes to an instructional methodology book, it is important
to emphasize that learning styles and strategies of individual students can work together with –
or conflict with –a given instructional methodology. If there is harmony between (a) the
student (in terms of style and strategy preferences) and (b) the combination of instructional
methodology and materials, then the student is likely to perform well, feel confident, and
experience low anxiety. If clashes occur between (a) and (b), the student often performs poorly,
feels unconfident, and experiences significant anxiety. Sometimes such clashes lead to serious
breakdowns in teacher-student interaction. These conflicts may also lead to the dispirited
student’s outright rejection of the teaching methodology, the teacher, and the subject matter.
Now we move to the detailed discussion of learning styles.
Learning Styles
Ehrman and Oxford (1990) cited 9 major style dimensions relevant to L2 learning,
although many more style aspects might also prove to be influential. This chapter discusses
four dimensions of learning style that are likely to be among those most strongly associated
with L2 learning: sensory preferences, personality types, desired degree of generality, and
biological differences.
Learning styles are not dichotomous (black or white, present or absent). Learning styles
generally operate on a continuum or on multiple, intersecting continua. For example, a person
might be more extraverted than introverted, or more closure-oriented than open, or equally
visual and auditory but with lesser kinesthetic and tactile involvement. Few if any people could
be classified as having all or nothing in any of these categories (Ehrman, 1996).
Sensory Preferences
Sensory preferences can be broken down into four main areas: visual, auditory,
kinesthetic (movement-oriented), and tactile (touch-oriented). Sensory preferences refer to the
physical, perceptual learning channels with which the student is the most comfortable. Visual
students like to read and obtain a great deal from visual stimulation. For them, lectures,
conversations, and oral directions without any visual backup can be very confusing. In contrast,
auditory students are comfortable without visual input and therefore enjoy and profit from
unembellished lectures, conversations, and oral directions. They are excited by classroom
interactions in role-plays and similar activities. They sometimes, however, have difficulty with
written work. Kinesthetic and tactile students like lots of movement and enjoy working with
tangible objects, collages, and flashcards. Sitting at a desk for very long is not for them; they
prefer to have frequent breaks and move around the room.
Reid (1987) demonstrated that ESL students varied significantly in their sensory
preferences, with people from certain cultures differentially favoring the three different
modalities for learning. Students from Asian cultures, for instance, were often highly visual,
with Koreans being the most visual. Many studies, including Reid’s, found that Hispanic
learners were frequently auditory. Reid discovered that Japanese are very nonauditory. ESL
students from a variety of cultures were tactile and kinesthetic in their sensory preferences.
See also Reid (1995) and Oxford and Anderson (1995).
Personality Types
Another style aspect that is important for L2 education is that of personality type, which
consists of four strands: extraverted vs. introverted; intuitive-random vs. sensing-sequential;
thinking vs. feeling; and closure-oriented/judging vs. open/perceiving. Personality type (often
called psychological type) is a construct based on the work of psychologist Carl Jung. Ehrman
and Oxford (1989, 1990) found a number of significant relationships between personality type
and L2 proficiency in native-English-speaking learners of foreign languages. For more on
personality type in language learning, see Ehrman (1996) and Oxford (1996b).
Extraverted vs. Introverted. By definition, extraverts gain their greatest energy from the
external world. They want interaction with people and have many friendships, some deep and
some not. In contrast, introverts derive their energy from the internal world, seeking solitude
and tending to have just a few friendships, which are often very deep. Extraverts and introverts
can learn to work together with the help of the teacher. Enforcing time limits in the L2
classroom can keep extraverts’ enthusiasm to a manageable level. Rotating the person in
charge of leading L2 discussions gives introverts the opportunity to participate equally with
extraverts.
Intuitive-Random vs. Sensing-Sequential. Intuitive-random students think in abstract,
futuristic, large-scale, and nonsequential ways. They like to create theories and new
possibilities, often have sudden insights, and prefer to guide their own learning. In contrast,
sensing-sequential learners are grounded in the here and now. They like facts rather than
theories, want guidance and specific instruction from the teacher, and look for consistency. The
key to teaching both intuitive-random and sensing-sequential learners is to offer variety and
choice: sometimes a highly organized structure for sensing-sequential learners and at other
times multiple options and enrichment activities for intuitive-random students.
Thinking vs. Feeling. Thinking learners are oriented toward the stark truth, even if it
hurts some people’s feelings. They want to be viewed as competent and do not tend to offer
praise easily –even though they might secretly desire to be praised themselves. Sometimes
they seem detached. In comparison, feeling learners value other people in very personal ways.
They show empathy and compassion through words, not just behaviors, and say whatever is
needed to smooth over difficult situations. Though they often wear their hearts on their sleeves,
they want to be respected for personal contributions and hard work. L2 teachers can help
thinking learners show greater overt compassion to their feeling classmates and can suggest
that feeling learners might tone down their emotional expression while working with thinking
learners.
Closure-oriented/Judging vs. Open/Perceiving. Closure-oriented students want to reach judgments or completion quickly and want clarity as soon as possible. These students are
serious, hardworking learners who like to be given written information and enjoy specific tasks
with deadlines. Sometimes their desire for closure hampers the development of fluency
(Ehrman & Oxford, 1989). In contrast, open learners want to stay available for continuously
new perceptions and are therefore sometimes called “perceiving.” They take L2 learning less
seriously, treating it like a game to be enjoyed rather than a set of tasks to be completed. Open
learners dislike deadlines; they want to have a good time and seem to soak up L2 information
by osmosis rather than hard effort. Open learners sometimes do better than closure-oriented
learners in developing fluency (Ehrman & Oxford, 1989), but they are at a disadvantage in a
traditional classroom setting. Closure-oriented and open learners provide a good balance for
each other in the L2 classroom. The former are the task-driven learners, and the latter know
how to have fun. Skilled L2 teachers sometimes consciously create cooperative groups that
include both types of learners, since these learners can benefit from collaboration with each
other.
Desired Degree of Generality
This strand contrasts the learner who focuses on the main idea or big picture with the
learner who concentrates on details. Global or holistic students like socially interactive,
communicative events in which they can emphasize the main idea and avoid analysis of
grammatical minutiae. They are comfortable even when not having all the information, and
they feel free to guess from the context. Analytic students tend to concentrate on grammatical
details and often avoid more free-flowing communicative activities. Because of their concern
for precision, analytic learners typically do not take the risks necessary for guessing from the
context unless they are fairly sure of the accuracy of their guesses. The global student and the
analytic student have much to learn from each other. A balance between generality and
specificity is very useful for L2 learning.
Biological Differences
Differences in L2 learning style can also be related to biological factors, such as
biorhythms, sustenance, and location. Biorhythms reveal the times of day when students feel
good and perform their best. Some L2 learners are morning people, while others do not want to
start learning until the afternoon, and still others are creatures of the evening, happily “pulling
an all-nighter” when necessary. Sustenance refers to the need for food or drink while learning.
Quite a number of L2 learners do not feel comfortable learning without a candy bar, a cup of
coffee, or a soda in hand, but others are distracted from study by food and drink. Location
involves the nature of the environment: temperature, lighting, sound, and even the firmness of
the chairs. L2 students differ widely with regard to these environmental factors. The biological
aspects of L2 learning style are often forgotten, but vigilant teachers can often make
accommodations and compromises when needed.
Beyond the Stylistic Comfort Zone
L2 learners clearly need to make the most of their style preferences. However,
occasionally they must also extend themselves beyond their style preferences. By providing a
wide range of classroom activities that cater to different learning styles, teachers can help L2
students develop beyond the comfort zone dictated by their natural style preferences. The key
is systematically offering a great variety of activities within a learner-centered, communicative
approach.
Assessing L2 Learning Style
By far the most common type of assessment tool for L2 learning styles is the written
survey. In surveys, students answer questions that reveal their particular style preferences.
Style surveys vary in reliability and validity, but in the last few decades they have provided
data from which teachers and students have begun to understand L2 styles. See Reid (1995) for
examples of such surveys.
We have touched upon a number of important dimensions of L2 learning style. Now we
are ready to turn to learning strategies, which are related to learning styles but are far more
specific.
Learning Strategies
As seen earlier, L2 learning strategies are specific behaviors or thought processes that
students use to enhance their own L2 learning. The word strategy comes from the ancient
Greek word strategia, which means steps or actions taken for the purpose of winning a war.
The warlike meaning of strategia has fortunately fallen away, but the control and goaldirectedness remain in the modern version of the word (Oxford, 1990).
A given strategy is neither good nor bad; it is essentially neutral until the context of its
use is thoroughly considered. What makes a strategy positive and helpful for a given learner?
A strategy is useful if the following conditions are present: (a) the strategy relates well to the
L2 task at hand, (b) the strategy fits the particular student’s learning style preferences to one
degree or another, and (c) the student employs the strategy effectively and links it with other
relevant strategies. Strategies that fulfill these conditions “make learning easier, faster, more
enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations” (Oxford,
1990, p. 8). Learning strategies can also enable students to become more independent,
autonomous, lifelong learners (Allwright, 1990; Little, 1991).
Yet students are not always aware of the power of consciously using L2 learning
strategies for making learning quicker and more effective (Nyikos & Oxford, 1993). Skilled
teachers help their students develop an awareness of learning strategies and enable them to use
a wider range of appropriate strategies.
Conscious Movement Toward Goals
Learning strategies are intentionally used and consciously controlled by the learner
(Pressley with McCormick, 1995). In our field, virtually all definitions of strategies imply
conscious movement toward a language goal (Bialystok, 1990; Oxford, 1990, 1996a). Let us
consider Divna, whose goal is to conduct research in chemistry with the help of articles written
in the L2. She is a busy professional without a lot of extra time for reading journals, but she
needs the information contained in them. To meet the need, she plans a manageable task:
finding and reading one L2 article per week on chemistry until she develops a rapid reading
rate and is able to identify and understand published research findings. Other strategies to help
Divna accomplish this task might include scheduling time each week to search for an article in
the library or on the Internet, as well as preparing herself by looking at articles on related
topics in her own language. In addition, she could use strategies such as skimming for the main
points, reading carefully for supporting details, keeping a notebook for L2 scientific
vocabulary, using the dictionary to look up difficult words, guessing the meaning of words
from the context, and making a written outline or summary if needed. The well-orchestrated set of strategies used by Divna might be called a strategy chain, i.e., a set of interlocking, related,
and mutually supportive strategies.
Positive Outcomes from Strategy Use
In subject areas outside of L2 learning, the use of learning strategies is demonstrably
related to student achievement and proficiency (Pressley & Associates, 1990). Research has
repeatedly shown this relationship in content fields ranging from physics to reading and from
social studies to science. In light of this remarkable association between learning strategy use
and positive learning outcomes, it is not surprising that students who frequently employ
learning strategies enjoy a high level of self-efficacy, i.e., a perception of being effective as
learners (Zimmerman & Pons, 1986).
In the L2 arena, early studies of so-called “good language learners” (Naiman, Fröhlich,
Stern, & Todesco, 1975; Rubin, 1975) determined that such learners consistently used certain
types of learning strategies, such as guessing meaning from the context. Later studies found
that there was no single set of strategies always used by “good language learners,” however.
Those studies found that less able learners used strategies in a random, unconnected, and
uncontrolled manner (Abraham & Vann, 1987; Chamot et al., 1996), while more effective
learners showed careful orchestration of strategies, targeted in a relevant, systematic way at
specific L2 tasks. In an investigation by Nunan (1991), more effective learners differed from
less effective learners in their greater ability to reflect on and articulate their own language
learning processes. In a study of learners of English in Puerto Rico, more successful students
used strategies for active involvement more frequently than did less successful learners,
according to Green and Oxford (1995). The same researchers also commented that the number
and type of learning strategies differed according to whether the learner was in a foreign
language environment or a second language setting. In their review of the research literature,
Green and Oxford discovered that second language learners generally employed more
strategies (with a higher frequency) than did foreign language learners.
Six Main Categories of L2 Learning Strategies
Six major groups of L2 learning strategies have been identified by Oxford (1990).
Alternative taxonomies have been offered by O’Malley and Chamot (1990) and others.
Cognitive strategies enable the learner to manipulate the language material in direct
ways, e.g., through reasoning, analysis, note-taking, summarizing, synthesizing, outlining,
reorganizing information to develop stronger schemas (knowledge structures), practicing in
naturalistic settings, and practicing structures and sounds formally. Cognitive strategies were
significantly related to L2 proficiency in studies by Kato (1996), Ku (1995), Oxford and
Ehrman (1995), Oxford, Judd, and Giesen (1998), and Park (1994), among others. Of these
studies, three were specifically in EFL settings: Ku (Taiwan), Oxford, Judd, and Giesen
(Turkey), and Park (Korea). The other two studies involved the learning of Kanji by native
English speakers (Kato, 1996) and the learning of various foreign languages by native English
speakers (Oxford & Ehrman, 1995).
Metacognitive strategies (e.g., identifying one’s own learning style preferences and
needs, planning for an L2 task, gathering and organizing materials, arranging a study space and
a schedule, monitoring mistakes, and evaluating task success, and evaluating the success of any
type of learning strategy) are employed for managing the learning process overall. Among
native English speakers learning foreign languages, Purpura (1999) found that metacognitive
strategies had "a significant, positive, direct effect on cognitive strategy use, providing clear
evidence that metacognitive strategy use has an executive function over cognitive strategy use
in task completion" (p. 61). Studies of EFL learners in various countries (e.g., in South Africa,
Dreyer & Oxford, 1996; and in Turkey, Oxford, Judd, & Giesen, 1998) uncovered evidence
that metacognitive strategies are often strong predictors of L2 proficiency.
Memory-related strategies help learners link one L2 item or concept with another but
do not necessarily involve deep understanding. Various memory-related strategies enable
learners to learn and retrieve information in an orderly string (e.g., acronyms), while other
techniques create learning and retrieval via sounds (e.g., rhyming), images (e.g., a mental
picture of the word itself or the meaning of the word), a combination of sounds and images
(e.g., the keyword method), body movement (e.g., total physical response), mechanical means
(e.g., flashcards), or location (e.g., on a page or blackboard) (see Oxford, 1990 for details and
multiple examples). Memory-related strategies have been shown to relate to L2 proficiency in
a course devoted to memorizing large numbers of Kanji characters (Kato, 1996) and in L2
courses designed for native-English speaking learners of foreign languages (Oxford & Ehrman,
1995). However, memory-related strategies do not always positively relate to L2 proficiency.
In fact, the use of memory strategies in a test-taking situation had a significant negative
relationship to learners' test performance in grammar and vocabulary (Purpura, 1997). The
probable reason for this is that memory strategies are often used for memorizing vocabulary
and structures in initial stages of language learning, but that learners need such strategies much
less when their arsenal of vocabulary and structures has become larger.
Compensatory strategies (e.g., guessing from the context in listening and reading; using
synonyms and “talking around” the missing word to aid speaking and writing; and strictly for
speaking, using gestures or pause words) help the learner make up for missing knowledge.
Cohen (1998) asserted that compensatory strategies that are used for speaking and writing
(often known as a form of communication strategies) are intended only for language use and
must not be considered to be language learning strategies. However, Little (personal
communication, January, 1999) and Oxford (1990, 1999a) contend that compensation
strategies of any kind, even though they might be used for language use, nevertheless aid in
language learning as well. After all, each instance of L2 use is an opportunity for more L2
learning. Oxford and Ehrman (1995) demonstrated that compensatory strategies are
significantly related to L2 proficiency in their study of native-English-speaking learners of
foreign languages.
Affective strategies, such as identifying one’s mood and anxiety level, talking about
feelings, rewarding oneself for good performance, and using deep breathing or positive selftalk,
have been shown to be significantly related to L2 proficiency in research by Dreyer and
Oxford (1996) among South African EFL learners and by Oxford and Ehrman (1995) among
native English speakers learning foreign languages. However, in other studies, such as that of
Mullins (1992) with EFL learners in Thailand, affective strategies showed a negative link with
some measures of L2 proficiency. One reason might be that as some students progress toward
proficiency, they no longer need affective strategies as much as before. Perhaps because
learners’ use of cognitive, metacognitive, and social strategies is related to greater L2
proficiency and self-efficacy, over time there might be less need for affective strategies as
learners progress to higher proficiency.
Social strategies (e.g., asking questions to get verification, asking for clarification of a
confusing point, asking for help in doing a language task, talking with a native-speaking
conversation partner, and exploring cultural and social norms) help the learner work with
others and understand the target culture as well as the language. Social strategies were
significantly associated with L2 proficiency in studies by the South African EFL study by
Dreyer and Oxford (1996) and the investigation of native-English-speaking foreign language
learners by Oxford and Ehrman (1995).
Assessing Learners’ Use of Strategies
Many assessment tools exist for uncovering the strategies used by L2 learners. Selfreport
surveys, observations, interviews, learner journals, dialogue journals, think-aloud
techniques, and other measures have been used. Each one of these has advantages and
disadvantages, as analyzed by Oxford (1990) and Cohen and Scott (1996). The most widely
used survey, the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (an appendix in Oxford, 1990), has
been translated into more than 20 languages and used in dozens of published studies around the
world.
Various learning strategy instruments have disclosed research results beyond those that
have been mentioned above. These additional findings include the following: L2 learning
strategy use is significantly related to L2 learning motivation, gender, age, culture, brain
hemisphere dominance, career orientation, academic major, beliefs, and the nature of the L2
task. A number of these findings have been summarized in Oxford (1999a, 1999b).
Assessing Styles and Strategies in the L2 Classroom
L2 teachers could benefit by assessing the learning styles and the strategy use of their
students, because such assessment leads to greater understanding of styles and strategies.
Teachers also need to assess their styles and strategies, so that they will be aware of their
preferences and of possible biases. Useful means exist to make these assessments, as
mentioned earlier. Teachers can learn about assessment options by reading books or journals,
attending professional conferences, or taking relevant courses or workshops.
Attuning L2 Instruction and Strategy Instruction to Learners’ Style Needs
The more that teachers know about their students' style preferences, the more
effectively they can orient their L2 instruction, as well as the strategy teaching that can be
interwoven into language instruction, matched to those style preferences. Some learners might
need instruction presented more visually, while others might require more auditory, kinesthetic, or tactile types of instruction. Without adequate knowledge about their individual students’
style preferences, teachers cannot systematically provide the needed instructional variety.
Remembering that No Single L2 Instructional Methodology Fits All Students
Styles and strategies help determine a particular learner’s ability and willingness to
work within the framework of various instructional methodologies. It is foolhardy to think that
a single L2 methodology could possibly fit an entire class filled with students who have a
range of stylistic and strategic preferences. Instead of choosing a specific instructional
methodology, L2 teachers would do better to employ a broad instructional approach, notably
the best version of the communicative approach that contains a combined focus on form and
fluency. Such an approach allows for deliberate, creative variety to meet the needs of all
students in the class.
Preparing for and Conducting L2 Strategy Instruction
L2 teachers should consider various ways to prepare to conduct strategy instruction in
their classes. Helpful preparatory steps include taking teacher development courses, finding
relevant information in print or on the Internet, and making contacts with specialists.
Although we do not yet know all we wish to know about optimal strategy instruction,
there is growing evidence that L2 teachers can and should conduct strategy instruction in their
classrooms. For some teachers it might be better to start with small strategy interventions, such as helping L2 readers learn to analyze words and guess meanings from the context, rather than
with full-scale strategies-based instruction involving a vast array of learning strategies and the
four language skills, i.e., reading, writing, speaking and listening. (See Oxford, 1990, for a
table of L2 strategies based on the six categories cross-indexed by the four language skills.)
Other teachers might want to move rapidly into strategies-based instruction. Strategiesbased
instruction is not so much a separate “instructional method” as it is sound strategy
instruction interwoven with the general communicative language teaching approach noted
above. Chamot and O’Malley (1996) describe the CALLA model, a form of strategies-based
instruction for ESL learners that includes explicit strategy instruction, content area instruction,
and academic language development. Cohen (1998) presents a different but somewhat related
version of strategies-based instruction for native English speakers learning foreign languages.
In evaluating the success of any strategy instruction, teachers should look for individuals’
progress toward L2 proficiency and for signs of increased self-efficacy or motivation.
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BIOSTATEMENT: Rebecca Oxford is Professor and Director of the Second Language
Education Program at the University of Maryland, College Park. Her books include Language
Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know, 1990; Language Learning Strategies
Around the World: Cross-Cultural Perspectives, 1996; and Patterns of Cultural Identity, 1995.
She edited the Tapestry ESL Program, second edition, 1999.
Discussion Questions
1. How are learning styles and strategies related?
2. Why are learning styles and strategies important for L2 teachers to understand?
3.What is your general opinion about six major categories of L2 learning strategies?
Which Learning Style Do You Belong To?
The Visual/ Verbal Learning Style You learn best when information is presented visually and in a written language format. In a classroom setting, you benefit from instructors who use the blackboard (or overhead projector) to list the essential points of a lecture, or who provide you with an outline to follow along with during lecture. You benefit from information obtained from textbooks and class notes. You tend to like to study by yourself in a quiet room. You often see information "in your mind's eye" when you are trying to remember something.
Learning Strategies for the Visual/ Verbal Learner: To aid recall, make use of "color coding" when studying new information in your textbook or notes. Using highlighter pens highlight different kinds of information in contrasting colors. -Write out sentences and phrases that summarize key information obtained from your textbook and lecture. -Make flashcards of vocabulary words and concepts that need to be memorized. Use highlighter pens to emphasize key points on the cards. Limit the amount of information per card so your mind can take a mental "picture" of the information. -When learning information presented in diagrams or illustrations, write out explanations for the information. -When learning mathematical or technical information, write out in sentences and key phrases your understanding of the material. When a problem involves a sequence of steps, write out in detail how to do each step. -Make use of computer word processing. Copy key information from your notes and textbook into a computer. Use the print-outs for visual review. -Before an exam, make yourself visual reminders of information that must be memorized. Make "stick it" notes containing key words and concepts and place them in highly visible places --on your mirror, notebook, car dashboard, etc.
The Visual/ Nonverbal Learning StyleYou learn best when information is presented visually and in a picture or design format. In a classroom setting, you benefit from instructors who use visual aids such as film, video, maps and charts. You benefit from information obtained from the pictures and diagrams in textbooks. You tend to like to work in a quiet room and may not like to work in study groups. When trying to remember something, you can often visualize a picture of it in your mind. You may have an artistic side that enjoys activities having to do with visual art and design.
Learning Strategies for the Visual/ Nonverbal Learner: Make flashcards of key information that needs to be memorized. Draw symbols and pictures on the cards to facilitate recall. Use highlighter pens to highlight key words and pictures on the flashcards. Limit the amount of information per card, so your mind can take a mental "picture' of the information. -Mark up the margins of your textbook with key words, symbols, and diagrams that help you remember the text. Use highlighter pens of contrasting colors to "color code" the information. -When learning mathematical or technical information, make charts to organize the information. When a mathematical problem involves a sequence of steps, draw a series of boxes, each containing the appropriate bit of information in sequence. Use large square graph paper to assist in creating charts and diagrams that illustrate key concepts. -Use the computer to assist in organizing material that needs to be memorized. Using word processing, create tables and charts with graphics that help you to understand and retain course material. Use spreadsheet and database software to further organize material that needs to be learned. -As much as possible, translate words and ideas into symbols, pictures, and diagrams.
The Tactile/ Kinesthetic Learning Style You learn best when physically engaged in a "hands on" activity. In the classroom, you benefit from a lab setting where you can manipulate materials to learn new information. You learn best when you can be physically active in the learning environment. You benefit from instructors who encourage in-class demonstrations, "hands on" student learning experiences, and field work outside the classroom.
Strategies for the Tactile/ Kinesthetic Learner: To help you stay focused on class lecture, sit near the front of the room and take notes throughout the class period. Don't worry about correct spelling or writing in complete sentences. Jot down key words and draw pictures or make charts to help you remember the information you are hearing. -When studying, walk back and forth with textbook, notes, or flashcards in hand and read the information out loud. Think of ways to make your learning tangible, i.e. something you can put your hands on. For example, make a model that illustrates a key concept. Spend extra time in a lab setting to learn an important procedure. Spend time in the field (e.g. a museum, historical site, or job site) to gain first-hand experience of your subject matter. -To learn a sequence of steps, make 3'x 5' flashcards for each step. Arrange the cards on a table top to represent the correct sequence. Put words, symbols, or pictures on your flashcards -- anything that helps you remember the information. Use highlighter pens in contrasting colours to emphasize important points. Limit the amount of information per card to aid recall. Practice putting the cards in order until the sequence becomes automatic. -When reviewing new information, copy key points onto a chalkboard, easel board, or other large writing surface. Make use of the computer to reinforce learning through the sense of touch. Using word processing software, copy essential information from your notes and textbook. Use graphics, tables, and spreadsheets to further organize material that must be learned. -Listen to audio tapes on a Walkman tape player while exercising. Make your own tapes containing important course information.
The Auditory/ Verbal Learning Style You learn best when information is presented auditory in an oral language format. In a classroom setting, you benefit from listening to lecture and participating in group discussions. You also benefit from obtaining information from audio tape. When trying to remember something, you can often "hear" the way someone told you the information, or the way you previously repeated it out loud. You learn best when interacting with others in a listening/speaking exchange . Strategies for the Auditory/ Verbal Learner: Join a study group to assist you in learning course material. Or, work with a "study buddy" on an ongoing basis to review key information and prepare for exams. -When studying by yourself, talk out loud to aid recall. Get yourself in a room where you won't be bothering anyone and read your notes and textbook out loud. -Tape-record your lectures. Use the 'pause' button to avoid taping irrelevant information. Use a tape recorder equipped with a 3-digit counter. At the beginning of each lecture, set your counter to '000.' If a concept discussed during lecture seems particularly confusing, glance at the counter number and jot it down in your notes. Later, you can fast forward to that number to review the material that confused you during lecture. Making use of a counter and pause button while tape recording allows you to avoid the tedious task of having to listen to hours and hours of lecture tape. -Use audio tapes such as commercial books on tape to aid recall. Or, create your own audio tapes by reading notes and textbook information into a tape recorder. When preparing for an exam, review the tapes on your car tape player or on a "Walkman" player whenever you can. -When learning mathematical or technical information, "talk your way" through the new information. State the problem in your own words. Reason through solutions to problems by talking out loud to yourself or with a study partner. To learn a sequence of steps, write them out in sentence form and read them out loud.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1) Which one of the learning styles identifies you most? Which strategies do you use from your learning style in your learning process?
2) When you become a teacher, which strategies do you prefer to be an eclectic teacher and satisfy the students’ needs about their special learning styles (for example; which strategy do you use to satisfy the student’s needs who has visual/ verbal learning style)?
3) a) What can be the difficulties of having so many different students from very different learning styles in a classroom environment? How do you manage to solve these problems as a teacher?
b) What are the opportunities of having many different students from different learning styles in your teaching class? What kinds of techniques do you prefer to make your lesson effective according to your students’ learning styles ( for example; using PowerPoint Presentation, background music, some active games or colorful pictures etc.)
Picture 4
This pictures sets the atmosphere that the student couldn’t be satisfied her teacher’s way of teaching and thinks that if her teacher uses the styles that she is dominant, namely, abstract sequential techniques, she will be more successful in her lessons because she will find opportunity to understand the subject according to her own taste of learning.
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